Biofuels: advantages and limitations for a sustainable future
10 min read
© - Developing biofuels raises farmland use issues ©THINKSTOCK
Why Develop Biofuels?
Developed in the 1970s in Brazil and the United States—still two major producers and consumers—and from the 1990s onwards in Europe, initially served multiple purposes: making use of agricultural resources, improving , and providing income for farmers.
At the turn of the century, as climate concerns grew, biofuels appeared to emit less CO₂ than petroleum-based fuels. Starting in 2003, the European Union (EU) encouraged its member states to set binding targets for integrating biofuels into conventional fuels.
The Limitations and Controversies Surrounding Biofuels
But experts and environmental groups began questioning several aspects of biofuel production:
- What is the balance in terms of and CO₂ emissions? Energy is required at every stage of the biofuel production chain—from fertilizers and pesticides for cultivation to machinery for processing and transportation. Each stage has a carbon footprint that must be accounted for at the end of the chain.
- What is the balance between food needs and biofuel needs (summarized as 'food vs. fuel')? If large areas of agricultural land are devoted to biofuels, isn't there a risk of threatening food production, particularly in regions where it is already precarious, such as Africa?
- What are the consequences in terms of land use? Allocating vast areas to biofuel production can cause rural depopulation, accelerate deforestation (as in Indonesia with the development of oil palm plantations), or lead farmers to clear new areas previously devoted to forests or wetlands. This phenomenon is referred to as ILUC (Indirect Land Use Change).
The debate has been—and continues to be—particularly heated in Europe among elected officials, environmental groups, agricultural professionals, and industry players. In October 2025, the NGO Transport & Environment (T&E) even estimated in a report that biofuels emit 16% more greenhouse gases globally than fossil fuels.
Advanced Biofuels and Alternatives
Industry advocates argue that a transition is underway toward advanced biofuels, known as second-generation biofuels, produced from agricultural and forestry waste or used cooking oil. These fuels are therefore no longer in competition with food crops. In addition, synthetic fuels (e-fuels) produced with green are also being developed. Research is even underway on Recycled Carbon Fuels (RCF), made from waste such as used tires.
However, this progress does not solve everything. Extending biofuel use to maritime and air transport will require increasing quantities of new fuels, which may lead to fierce competition and higher prices. Used cooking oil is limited, and agricultural residues are already used as fuel or animal feed.
European Sustainability Criteria
For more than 20 years, the European Union has led the way in establishing
criteria and integration targets.
In 2025, the RED III directive, successor to the
Directive (RED), will impose stricter sustainability requirements for biofuels: at least a 65% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels; increased traceability of raw materials to prevent fraud. It also sets:
- a target of at least 29% renewable energy in final energy consumption in the transport sector;
- a binding sub-target of 5.5% for advanced biofuels and e-fuels.
The EU has also begun setting targets for the marine sector, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions from maritime transport from 2% in 2025 to 80% by 2050. For air transport, the EU is imposing increasing percentages of Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) starting in 2025, with a growing share of synthetic fuels.
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